Tsim, Science
Cartography - yog ... Keeb kwm ntawm cartography. txoj kev loj hlob ntawm cartography. Cartography thiab Geoinformatics
Lub siab los mus txiav txim lawv qhov chaw nyob rau daim av, ntawm hiav txwv los yog nyob rau hauv lub hnub qub yog ib tug ntawm cov earliest tsim nyog tib neeg xav tau kev pab. Txheej thaum ub drawings ntawm lub txheej thaum ub tej vaj tse muab sawv mus rau lub complex thiab multi-muaj nuj nqis coj ntawm tib neeg kev ua si. Kev tshawb fawb tshiab pawg neeg thaj av thiab qhov kev piav qhia ntawm lawv muab impetus mus rau lub kev txawj ntse loj hlob ntawm tag nrho cov kev vammeej.
Keeb kwm ntawm lub sij hawm
Cov Greek lo lus χάρτης - hartis (Charter, papyrus, daim ntawv) thiab γράφειν - teeb (kev sau ntawv, khawb), los ua lub hauv paus ntawm ib lub sij hawm designating ib tug loj cheeb tsam ntawm tshwj xeeb kev ua si nyob lub hlws ris ntawm ntau yam teb ntawm science uas muaj feem rau qhov kev piav qhia ntawm lub spatial ib puag ncig ntawm tus tib neeg lub vaj tse. Cartography - qhov no particular thaj tsam ntawm lub visual arts.
Qhov zoo tshaj plaws piv txwv ntawm handwritten phaib ntawm lub legacy ntawm xyoo dhau los lawm - lub masterpieces ntawm siab artistic theem graphics. Niaj hnub no, nrog rau cov creation ntawm hluav taws xob maps, kab kos, kos duab thiab ua tsis tau tsis ntxias. Nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua XXI cartography - ib tug sophisticated computer seem thiab 3D-graphics, stylish nrig txog kev pom tsim.
pib
Lub earliest extant dluab zoo xws li cov card, siv tsis tau tsuas yog rau cov txheej thaum ub drawings ntawm lub ntiaj teb nto, tab sis kuj mus rau lub ntuj. Petroglyphs (carved nyob rau hauv pob zeb) - cov duab ntawm lub brightest txhiaj txiv mim uas yog nyob rau hauv Fabkis thiab Spain, pob zeb painting, reminiscent ntawm lub zos txoj kev npaj twb tau ua rau 6000 xyoo BC nyob rau hauv lub foothills ntawm Qaib Cov Txwv. Keeb kwm ntawm Cartography hais tias nws tshwm ua ntej lub sau ntawv thiab cov zaj dab neeg txog lub concentration ntawm scientific zoo rau cov creation ntawm cov thawj daim ntawv qhia daim duab.
Lub views ntawm lub ancient philosophers mus rau lub ntiaj teb no thiaj yog reflected nyob rau hauv thawj maps uas yuav kos nyob rau hauv lub xyoo pua VI BC. e. tus paub txog Anaximander. Lub ntiaj teb los tshwm rau muaj ib tug ca vajvoog, surrounded los ntawm dej.
Paub txog lub ntiaj teb no txhab, nce thaj tsam ntawm lub ntiaj chaw, muaj nyob rau ntawm maps. cartography txoj kev loj hlob yog ib qhov nyuaj rau xav txog tej yam tsis muaj tus "Geography" ntawm Ptolemy (II xyoo pua BC. e.). Rau nws maps twb npav lub latitude thiab longitude qhia los ntawm cov peb qhov chaw ntawm lub ntiaj teb no: Teb chaws Europe, Asia, thiab Libya (Africa). Heev tseeb portrayal muaj feem ntau cov kawm qhov chaw ntawm teb chaws Europe thiab qaum teb chaws Africa, ntau nyob ntawm - Asia. Ib tug zoo qhov chaw nyob rau hauv lub maps ntawm Ptolemy coj Unknown av.
Maps ntawm Ancient Tuam Tshoj thiab lub East
Tus thawj mention ntawm Suav maps, muaj nyob rau hauv tas li ntawd mus thaj cov ntaub ntawv, cov lus qhia txog qhov sib txawv qhov chaw ntawm lub kev khwv nyiaj txiag, txog cov khoom yuav mus rau lub III xyoo pua BC. e. Fundamentals ntawm cartography li ib tug hlau ntawm ntau yam scientific kev txawj ntse - lub cev, thaj, keeb kwm, economic thiab kev nom kev tswv - twb pw ces. Maps thiab topographical kev pab them nqi ntawm cov Han nyob rau hauv thawj centuries ntawm peb lub sij hawm twb muaj ib tug system ntawm cov cim, ib lub coordinate system thiab lub caij nyoog ib thaj tsam ntawm thaj av teej tug mus rau lub cov khoom ntawm ntau yam rulers.
Achievements cartographers Is Nrias teb ancient lub sij hawm thaws rov los nyob rau hauv daim duab mus rau lub epic paj huam "Mahabharata" thiab "Ramayana". Nyob rau hauv qhov chaw nyob qhov twg qhov kev txiav txim yog ib cov kwv huam, muaj ntau ntau yam mythological ntsiab - legendary lub zos thiab xav txog tej yam creatures.
Nyob rau medieval maps ntawm lub Eastern geographers Al-Khwarizmi, Piri Reis thiab lwm tus neeg rau ib tug ntau zoo heev thiab tsis muaj khoom, tab sis lawv yog tam sim no thiab cov cheeb tsam tsis paub rau European kws tshawb fawb. Cov lawv - lub yav qab teb ntxeev ntawm America thiab txawm tus tsis paub yav qab teb chaws - Antarctica.
Lub sij hawm thaj discoveries
keeb kwm ntawm cartography muaj ob peb tseem ceeb revolutionary kauj ruam. Tej yam zoo li twb cim los ntawm cov Renaissance. Nws yog cov tsos ntawm lub ntiaj teb German geographer Martin Behaim, uas hu ua "lub ntiaj teb Kua", thiab tso zis rau ntawm tus thawj collections ntawm maps, sau phau ntawv twb Gerhart Mercator thiab Abraham Ortelius. Cov atlases muaj tag nrho cov cwj pwm, txiav txim rau txoj kev mus kom ze rau tus tsim thiab siv thiab ua cov ntawv teev lus. Qhov maps kawm tau ntawv ntawm luam ntawv.
Cov txheej xwm yog ib tug tsim nyog tau thiab ua ib thaj discoveries, tsis tshuav rau lub ntiaj chaw uas tsaus nti me ntsis. Lub rov tshwm sim uas yog maps tau txais kev pab raws li lawv ua tau zoo geography, cartography tau ua rau nws tau rau ntau dej hiav txwv ua luam dej thiab transcontinental overland hla. Magellan thiab ntoj ke mus kawm ntawm Columbus, mus txawv tebchaws Vasco Da Gama ua tau los ntawm cov invention los ntawm txoj kev navigation thiab lub hnub thiab cov hnub qub ntau thiab kuj muaj tseeb tag nrho cov dluab kawm qhov chaw ntawm lub ntiaj teb saum npoo av.
Cartography nyob rau hauv Russia
Qhov tseem ceeb ntawm cov ntaub ntawv hais txog qhov twg rau ib thaj tsam, lub xeev, nyob rau hauv qhov chaw ntawm lub loj tej yam ntuj tso qhov chaw ntawm lub tso ntawm natural resources, nyob rau hauv Russia meej pem vim hais tias cov princely feuds. Geography, topography, Cartography poob mus rau hauv lub Scope ntawm tej lub xeev ntawm kev txaus siab thaum lub sij hawm tsim ntawm ib tug centralized hwj chim Moscow. Cov tshwm sim ntawm no xim yog tus "Big Plans". Uas yog lub hom phiaj ntawm Lavxias teb sab territories, tseg rau ib daim ntawv 2,5h2,5 m, tsim los ntawm ib tug ntawm cov versions raws li qhov kev txiav txim Ivana Groznogo.
Qhov no yog thawj lub npe hu ua hauj lwm ntawm Lavxias teb sab cartographers tuaj xwb nyob rau hauv daim ntawv ntawm ib tug paub piav qhia txog - "Big Phau Ntawv Drawings", nyob rau hauv uas ib tug loj ntaub ntawv ntsiab lus thiab thoroughness ntawm daim card kev ua tau zoo yog pom.
xeev mus kom ze
Los ntawm lub sij hawm ntawm Peter kuv ntawm Russia tsim ib lub xeev system ntawm Geodesy thiab Cartography. Kev npaj thiab printing ntawm cov ntawv teev lus no tau muab rau tus ciaj ciam ntawm lub Academy ntawm Sciences. Cov tshwm sim yog ib tug lossis loj ua hauj lwm rau num hauv lub xeev ntawm Lavxias teb sab chaw uas zoo heev, tso tawm ob peb versions ntawm ncauj lus kom ntxaws atlases.
Ntawm cov kws txawj thiab cov kiv cua nyiam ib tug zoo lub koob meej Atlas central Lavxias teb sab xeev, tso ua ke thiab luam tawm nyob rau hauv cov kev taw qhia ntawm A. I. Mende.
Nyob rau cov tshiab kev thiab lub koom haum qib ntawm domestic cartography thiab geoinformatics tau tsa nyob rau hauv lub Soviet lub sij hawm. Los ntawm 1954, lub kuas ntawm tag nrho lub teb chaws tau ua tiav nyob rau scale of 1: 100,000. Thaum streamlined active thoob ntiaj teb kev koom tes twb muab tus "Great Soviet Atlas ntawm lub ntiaj teb" - ib qho ntawm feem tiav daim ntawv qhia txog lub ntiaj teb no xov xwm.
niaj hnub siv tshuab
Tes xis teb xis chaw pab them nqi thiab maps ntawm yav dhau los centuries yog qhov kev kawm ntawm admiration rau historians, lolus thiab connoisseurs ntawm graphic art. Niaj hnub nimno cartography - synthesis ntawm cutting-edge science thiab technology. Txhob yog lub uas nws kim heev kev siv ntawm tej thaj chaw deb txoj kev ntawm zoning ntawm cov ntiaj chaw - thawj sim saum nruab ntug duab, thiab ces - mus luam theej duab cov nto ntawm lub ntiaj teb los ntawm satellites. Cov nyiaj tau ua niaj hnub no maps thiab cov kev npaj ntawm ntau yam scale cim nyob rau hauv nws tiav thiab raug.
Khoos phib tawj thiab electro-kho qhov muag printing tshuab tau fundamentally hloov rau hauv daim ntawv luam ntawv txheej txheem. 3D-modeling, cov duab ua, tsom xam thiab kev tswj ntawm loj loj databases - li ib txwm ua hauj lwm txoj kev uas niaj hnub cartography. Nyob rau hauv no cov num daim ntawv cab kuj txo sai heev. Lub ntsiab kev taw qhia ntawm niaj hnub no cartography thiab geoinformatics ua visualization ntawm cov ntaub ntawv hais txog lub geosphere rau hluav taws xob tawm rau saib nyob rau hauv ib tug ntau yam ntawm gadgets.
Uas muaj xws li kuas:
- Cartography - general txoj kev tshawb no ntawm maps.
- Keeb kwm ntawm cartography - txoj kev loj hlob ntawm txoj kev ntawm kev npaj, thiab siv maps.
- Designing thiab kuas.
- Cartographic semiotics - ib tug system ntawm cov cim thiab lawv cov kev siv nyob rau hauv cov ntawv teev lus.
- Cartographic tsim.
- Tsab thiab publishing maps.
- Siv maps.
- Cov kev loj hlob ntawm cartographic qhov chaw ntawm cov ntaub ntawv.
- Toponymy - qhov kev kawm ntawm thaj npe.
Kev lag luam tiam sis cartography
Niaj hnub nimno cartographic khoom tej zaum yuav muaj ntaub ntawv tseem ceeb rau ntau qhov chaw ntawm kev, kev sib raug zoo thiab kev ua si ntawm cov neeg. Ntawm lawv yog cov general geographic - qhov chaw ntawm ntuj thiab dag keeb kwm, geologic, av, ethnographic. Ntawm cov tshiab chaw geo-ecology, geopolitics, electoral.
Qho uas txawv ntawm qhov sib txawv qhov chaw ntawm ua daim ntawv thov ntawm tej khoom uas muaj cov cai rau cov kev npaj thiab tiav. Maps thiab atlases koom siv nyob rau hauv txoj kev kawm nyob rau hauv ntau theem ntawm kev kawm ntawv, kev tshawb fawb, lawv yuav tsum tau nyob rau hauv lub maritime thiab cua navigation, maps - ib tug tseem ceeb ib feem ntawm neeg mus ncig tebchaws ntawv qhia kev. Feeb ntau, thov rau cov tub rog thiab pej xeem engineering maps thiab topographical kev pab them nqi.
NWS-yees
Khoos phib tawj technology nyob rau hauv cartography revolutionized, tsim ib qho ntawm feem nrov ntawm nws cov lus qhia. Sis ntawm computer modeling thiab geo-Informatics tau tsim GIS kuas. Cov feem ntau pom tseeb thiab cov kev tshwm sim nws tau ua nyob hauv internet kuas, tas cov siv tsim nyog thiab tseem ceeb cov lus qhia txog cov ib puag ncig geosphere, ib tug loj loj ntawm cov neeg.
Lub ntsiab kom zoo dua ntawm hauv internet cartography yog qhov tseeb ntawm cov ntaub ntawv, nws cov high ntaub ntawv ntsiab lus thiab clarity. Muaj peev xwm mus hloov cov maps online, txawv versions ntawm nws cov zaub - planar thiab peb-dimensional, hnub thiab hmo ntuj, tsis tas li ntawd ntawm panoramic maps cov duab thiab cov video - tag nrho cov no txhais tau tias unattainable rau cartographers ntawm yav dhau los.
Nyob rau teb chaws thiab nyob rau hauv lub hiav txwv nyob rau hauv lub ntiaj teb thiab nyob rau hauv qhov chaw
Yog tsis muaj daim card yog tsis yooj yim sua mus tshawb lub ntiaj teb no. Lawv nqa ntaub ntawv sib sau tshwj xeeb los ntawm ntau ceg ntawm science, uas yuav pab nyob rau hauv nws cov tsom xam zauv, cov tsos ntawm cov tshiab theories thiab hypotheses.
Piv txwv li, geomorphology - qhov kev kawm ntawm cov kev cai kav lub tsim ntawm terrestrial nyem - tsis tau tsis muaj leej topographical av thiab seafloor maps. Yuav kom kawm rau hauv lub tsev thiab ua rau kev mob kev nkeeg yog tsis yooj yim sua yam uas tsis tau paub ntuj thiab socio-economic maps.
Txawm nyob deb planets los ua tus kwv uas niaj hnub cartography. Comparative Planetology poob lawm ntawm lub tsim ntawm lub saum ntuj ceeb tsheej lub cev, Ntsuam xyuas cov maps ntawm lub ntiaj teb thiab cov dluab npaum li cas los spacecraft.
Kwvhuam thiab zeem muag
Tej zaum kuj muaj kev txiav txim ntawm cov tab tom yuav tuag rau ntawm cov tsoos cartography. Supposedly txoj kev loj hlob ntawm cov ntaub ntawv technology yuav ua rau uselessness ntawm maps thiab cov kev npaj nyob rau hauv daim ntawv ntawm daim ntawv globes thiab atlases. Nrhiav cov feem ntau cov lus qhia txog tej taw tes rau hauv lub ntiaj chaw los yog nyob rau hauv lub yav chaw yog ua yooj yim dua. Tab sis nws hais tias tsuas yog tus qauv ntawm cov cartographic ntaub ntawv cov ntawv qhia.
Cartography - yog ib tug ntev li keeb kwm thiab kuj zoo kawg lig kev cai. Cia cov sau zoo thiab muaj meej mom ntawm nraaj tsim cards tam sim no muaj kev txhawj xeeb ntau lolus - niaj hnub cov ntaub ntawv thiab navigation systems yog ua nyob rau hauv lub hauv paus ntsiab lus tsim los ntawm tiam ntawm cartographers.
Lub qhov kev hloov nyob rau hauv lub cev, kev coj thiab kev nom kev tswv duab ntawm lub ntiaj teb thiab nws cov chaw ua kuas science thiab technology kev lag luam, qhov yuav tsum tau rau cov uas yuav tsis ploj.
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