Tshuaj thiab lub cev thaj chaw ntawm cov ntaub ntawv

Niaj hnub no, muaj txog 2.5 million ntawm ntau yam tebchaw, ntuj tsim muaj thiab artificially tsim los ntawm tus txiv neej. Lawv yog cov tag nrho cov sib txawv heev, ib txhia ntawm lawv - qhov tseem ceeb tuaj koom nyob rau hauv lom dab tshwm sim nyob rau hauv uas muaj sia nyob. Tebchaw txawv los ntawm txhua lwm yam khoom ntawm cov tshuaj. Specifications thiab dab tsi yog tseem tau hais tias ib tug kev tshuaj molecule, piav rau hauv qab no.

Yuav ua li cas yog qhov teeb meem?

Yog hais tias koj muab ib tug txhais ntawm cov tswvyim no, nws yog tsim nyog los taw tes tawm nws twb kev txuas nrog cov cev nqaij daim tawv. Tom qab tag nrho, lub yam khoom uas yog tau hais tias yuav raws nraim li nws muaj cov lub cev. Piv txwv li, iav, hlau, sulfur, ntoo - ib tug tshuaj. Piv txwv yuav coj infinitely. Yooj yim rau to taub li nram no: Peb xav txog lub sij hawm hais txog txhua yam nyob rau hauv lub ntiaj teb no muaj ntau yam sib txawv ntawm cov ob peb ua ke ntawm molecules, raws li zoo raws li tej yam yooj yim monatomic hais.

Yog li, dej, haus dej cawv, acids, alkalis, cov nqaijrog, carbohydrates, ntsev, piam thaj, xuab zeb, av nplaum, pob zeb diamond, gases, thiab lwm yam - nws yog ib lub tshuaj. Piv txwv yuav ua tau ntau kom meej meej ntes tus essence ntawm cov tswvyim no.

Lub cev lub cev - nws yog ib yam khoom, uas yog tsim los ntawm cov xwm los los ntawm txiv neej nyob rau hauv lub hauv paus ntawm ntau yam sib txuas. Piv txwv li, iav - ib lub cev uas muaj ntawm cov iav thiab ib daim ntawv ntawm daim ntawv - ib lub cev uas yog ib tug ua cellulose los yog ntoo.

Ntawm cov hoob kawm, tag nrho cov molecules yog cov sib txawv. Yuav ua li cas yog lub hauv paus ntawm lawv sib txawv, lawv hu ua lawv lub zog - lub cev, cov tshuaj lom thiab organoleptic zog. Lawv yog txhais siv tshwj xeeb cov tswv yim uas txhua science nws. Nws yuav ua tau xyuam xim, analytical, sim, instrumental txoj kev, thiab ntau ntau ntau yam. Piv txwv li, cov kev kawm ntawm Science News for KIDS siv rau txhua yam khoom uas, los yog es, kom paub tias nws, tus neeg sawv cev. Nws tau xaiv rau lub hauv paus ntawm cov yam ntxwv nta ntawm lub molecule thiab twv seb tshuaj zog. Ces ntsuam experimentally pom zoo thiab tsau nyob rau hauv lub theoretical lub hauv paus.

faib tawm yam

Lub hauv paus ntawm lub division rau hauv pab pawg ntawm cov tebchaw yuav tau muab tso rau ntau ntau yam sib txawv nta. Piv txwv li, lub xeev ntawm aggregation. Tag nrho cov ntawm lawv muaj peev xwm yuav nyob rau hauv no zoo tshaj ntawm plaub hom:

• ntshav;
• roj;
• kua;
• crystalline khoom (khoom).

Yog hais tias peb coj raws li ib lub hauv paus rau ib tug ntau "sib sib zog nqus" kos npe rau, tag nrho cov ntaub ntawv yuav tsum tau muab faib mus rau hauv:

• organic - raws li nyob rau hauv chains thiab mus ntawm cov pa roj carbon thiab hydrogen atoms;
• inorganic - tag nrho cov so.

Lub elemental muaj pes tsawg leeg uas qhia lub tebchaw ntawm lub mis, lawv yog:

• yooj yim - ib zaug xwb hom tshuaj atoms;
• complex - ob los yog ntau tshaj ntau hom ntawm cov khoom.

Nyob rau hauv lem, zoo tib yam muab faib mus rau hauv hlau thiab nonmetals. Sophisticated muaj ntau chav kawm: ntsev, bases, acids, oxides, esters, hydrocarbons, alcohols, nucleic acids thiab thiaj li nyob.

Ntau hom ntawm sib txuas ntawm cov qauv

Yuav ua li cas yog qhov tseeb, hais tias yog graphical, zaub sib txuas? Ntawm cov hoob kawm, qhov no mis tshuaj. Lawv yog cov sib txawv. Nyob ntawm seb lub hom ntawm cov ntaub ntawv muaj nyob rau hauv lawv kuj sib txawv nyob rau hauv cov qauv. Yog li ntawd, muaj cov kev xaiv:

1. Empirical los yog molecular. Nws qhia lub quantitative thiab zoo muaj pes tsawg leeg ntawm lub substance. Nws muaj xws li cov cim teej tug mus rau lub ntsiab thiab lub Performance index nyob rau hauv rau sab laug ces kaum ntawm nws, uas qhia cov naj npawb ntawm cov atoms nyob rau hauv lub molecule. Piv txwv li, H ₂ O, Na ₂ li _4, AL ₂ (LI NTAWD _{4) 3.}
2. Electron diffraction. Qhov no qhia tau hais tias mis rau tus xov tooj ntawm valence electrons ntawm txhua lub caij constituting lub compound. Yog li ntawd, xws li ib embodiment yog twb tau twv seb ib co ntawm cov tshuaj thiab lub cev thaj chaw ntawm tshuaj.
3. Nyob rau hauv cov organic Science News for KIDS ntau siv tag nrho thiab abbreviated yam ntxwv qauv. Lawv muaj kev cuam tshuam qhov kev txiav txim ntawm lub atoms nyob rau hauv lub lwg me me, tshaj tej ntawm, kom meej meej qhia ib yam khoom teej tug mus rau ib tug hauv chav kawm ntawv ntawm tebchaw. Thiab nws tso cai rau koj kom meej seb puas muaj tus hom ntawm molecules thiab twv seb tag nrho cov yam ntxwv rau nws kev koom tes.

Yog li ntawd, cov tshuaj lom cim thiab yog formatted tebchaw ntawm mis - cov loj ib feem ntawm lub chaw ua hauj lwm nrog tag nrho cov paub tshuaj. Qhov no yog qhov theoretical lub hauv paus uas txhua leej txhua tus yuav tsum paub tus menyuam kawm ntawv uas kawm Science News for KIDS.

lub zog

Ib tug heev ib qho tseem ceeb cov yam ntxwv ntawm lub cev muaj zog yog tshaaj los ntawm cov ntaub ntawv. Hais tias lub caij nplooj zeeg mus rau hauv pab pawg neeg no?

1. Lub cev lub xeev nyob rau hauv ntau yam tej yam kev mob, nrog rau tus txheej txheem.
2. lub reflux kub, melting, cia kom khov, evaporation.
3. Organoleptic yam ntxwv: xim, tsis hnov tsw, saj.
4. Solubility nyob rau hauv dej thiab lwm yam kuab tshuaj (organic, rau piv txwv).
5. Lub ceev thiab fluidity, viscosity.
6. Hluav taws xob thiab thermal conductivity, Thaum tshav kub kub muaj peev xwm.
7. Schematic permeability.
8. Radioactivity.
9. Haum thiab emission.
10. Inductance.

Muaj kuj yog ib tug series ntawm indicators, As, uas yog tseem ceeb heev rau ib tug ua tiav daim ntawv teev, reflecting lub thaj chaw ntawm tshuaj. Txawm li cas los, lawv yog nyob nruab nrab ntawm lub cev thiab tshuaj. Lawv yog:

• electrode tej zaum ;
• ntaus siv lead ua ntxaij ntoo;
• electronegativity;
• hardness thiab brittleness;
• malleability thiab ductility;
• volatility los yog evaporation;
• lom los ntawm cov uas muaj sia nyob (lom, suffocating, paj agents, nruab nrab, pab, thiab lwm yam).

Feem ntau cov nuj nqis yog hais raws nraim thaum twb hais txog ncaj qha nrog cov tshuaj thaj chaw ntawm tshuaj. Txawm li cas los, koj yuav tau qhia kom meej rau lawv nyob rau hauv lub cev seem uas yuam kev yuav tsis muaj.

Cov tshuaj thaj chaw ntawm tshuaj

Qhov no pab pawg neeg no muaj xws li tag nrho cov tau hom kev sis raug zoo ntawm cov molecule nrog rau lwm cov yooj yooj yim thiab complex tshuaj. Qhov ntawd yog ib tug ncaj qha tshuaj cov tshuaj tiv thaiv. Rau txhua hom ntawm kev twb kev txuas lawv nruj me ntsis meej. Txawm li cas los, cais ntau pab pawg neeg thaj chaw rau ib tug tag nrho cov chav kawm ntawv ntawm tshuaj.

Piv txwv li, tag nrho cov acid uas muaj peev xwm ntawm reacting nrog co, raws li lawv txoj hauj lwm nyob rau hauv lub electrochemical series ntawm co voltages. Tsis tas li ntawd rau tag nrho cov raug neutralization tshuaj tiv thaiv uas lub alkali, reacting nrog insoluble bases. Txawm li cas los, feeb meej sulfuric acid thiab nitric particular, txij li thaum cov khoom ntawm lawv cov tshuaj tiv thaiv nrog co txawv los ntawm cov neeg tau ua los ntawm zoo xws li cov tshua nrog rau lwm cov mej zeej ntawm lub chav kawm ntawv.

Tshuaj thaj chaw ntawm ib tug ntau ntawm txhua substance. Lawv tus xov tooj yog txiav txim los ntawm cov kev ua ntawm lub compound, uas yog, muaj peev xwm yuav hnov mob nrog lwm lub Cheebtsam. Muaj mas reactive, muaj zoo inert. Qhov no yog nruj me ntsis ib tug neeg parameter.

yooj yim teeb meem

Cov no muaj xws cov neeg uas muaj ib zaug xwb hom atom, tab sis txawv nyob rau hauv lawv cov xov tooj. Piv txwv li, S _8, O _2, O _{3, Au,} N _2, P _4, CL _2, Ar, thiab lwm tus neeg.

Cov tshuaj thaj chaw ntawm tej yam yooj yim tshuaj yog txo mus nrog:

• co;
• uas tsis yog-hlau;
• dej;
• acids;
• alkalis thiab amphoteric hydroxides;
• organic tebchaw;
• ntsev;
• oxides;
• peroxide thiab anhydride, thiab lwm yam molecules.

Ib zaug ntxiv nws yuav tsum tau muab sau tseg tias nws yog narrowly tej yam ntxwv ntawm txhua kev cov ntaub ntawv. Yog li ntawd, lub cev, thiab tshuaj thaj chaw ntawm tej yam yooj yim tshuaj uas xam tau tias yog ib lub zuj zus.

complex tshuaj

Qhov no pab pawg neeg no muaj xws li xws tebchaw, lub lwg me me uas yog tsim los ntawm cov ob los yog ntau tshaj sib txawv tshuaj ntsiab. Tus nqi ntawm txhua tus ntawm lawv tej zaum yuav txawv. Yuav kom nkag siab txog cov tam sim no ib tug ob peb yam yooj yim piv txwv:

• H ₃ PO _4;
• K ₃ [Fe (CN) _6];
• Cu (OH) _2;
• LiF;
• AL ₂ O ₃ thiab lwm tus neeg.

Txij li thaum lawv tag nrho mus rau kawm txawv ntawm tshuaj, qhia ntau lub cev thiab tshuaj cov yam ntxwv rau tag nrho cov tsis yooj yim sua. Qhov no tej khoom, cim thiab ib tug neeg nyob rau hauv txhua rooj plaub.

inorganics

Lawv niaj hnub no, muaj ntau dua 500 txhiab. Muaj ob yam yooj yim thiab complex. Nyob rau hauv tag nrho muaj yog ob peb loj cov chav kawm ntawm inorganic tebchaw, uas yog tag nrho lawv muaj ntau haiv neeg.

1. Tej yam yooj yim tshuaj hlau.
2. Oxides.
3. Tej yam yooj yim tshuaj uas tsis yog-hlau.
4. Noble los yog inert gases.
5. Peroxides.
6. Anhydrides.
7. Nrov heev nthe hydrogen compound.
8. Hydrides.
9. Ntsev.
10. Acid.
11. Base.
12. Amphoteric compound.

Tej tus neeg sawv cev ntawm txhua hoob kawm nws muaj nws tus kheej txheej ntawm lub cev thiab tshuaj thaj chaw uas tso cai rau kom paub qhov txawv los ntawm lwm tebchaw thiab paub.

Thaj chaw ntawm cov organic tshuaj

Organics - yog ib tug seem ntawm Science News for KIDS uas tseem ua hauj lwm nrog cov kev kawm txog lub tebchaw uas tsis yog inorganic, thiab lawv lub zog. carbon atoms underlie lawv cov qauv, muaj peev xwm sawv ntawm txuas nrog txhua lwm yam nyob rau hauv ntau yam lug:

• linear los yog branched saw;
• mus;
• uas muaj ntxhiab nplhaib;
• heterocycles.

Nyob kab mob yog muaj li xwb xws li tebchaw, raws li lub hauv paus ntawm lub neej - yog cov nqaijrog, nqaijrog thiab carbohydrates. Tag nrho cov ntawm lawv - cov neeg sawv cev ntawm lub organic tshuaj. Yog li ntawd, lub zog ntawm lawv cov nta. Tab sis nyob rau hauv txhua rooj plaub, tsis muaj teeb meem dab tsi zoo ntawm molecule nyob rau hauv lo lus nug, nws yog tseem rau nws tsiag ntawv los ntawm ib tug tej yam txheej ntawm lub cev thiab tshuaj zog, uas peb hais ua ntej lawm.

Yuav ua li cas yog ib tug nyob muaj teeb meem?

Nws hu ua nyob qhov teeb meem ntawm uas yog tsim los ntawm cov tag nrho biomass ntawm peb ntiaj chaw. Uas yog, cov neeg muaj tus kab mob uas ua tau lub neej rau nws:

• cov kab mob thiab cov kab mob;
• protozoa;
• tsob nroj;
• tsiaj;
• nceb;
• neeg.

Txij li thaum lub ib thooj ntawm lub tebchaw nyob rau hauv lub beings - organic, nws tseem tau mus nqa lawv mus rau ib tug pab pawg neeg ntawm nyob teeb meem. Txawm li cas los, tsis yog txhua txhua. Tsuas yog cov neeg uas tseem ceeb rau lub hav zoov ntawm cov nyob cov neeg sawv cev ntawm lub biosphere. Lawv yog cov nqaijrog, nucleic acids, cov tshuaj hormones, vitamins, cov rog, carbohydrates, amino acids thiab lwm tus neeg. Lub sij hawm "nyob teeb meem" twb qhia Vernadsky, qhov tus tsim ntawm lub hom phiaj ntawm lub biosphere ntawm cov ntiaj chaw.

Cov khoom uas muaj sia nyob muaj teeb meem:

• muaj zog nrog tau ntawm nws hloov dua siab tshiab;
• self-kev cai;
• yeem zog;
• alternation ntawm tiam neeg;
• huab muaj ntau haiv neeg.

Muaju thiab nws yog xim hlau tshuaj

Nws yog hais txog tag nrho cov crystalline tebchaw muaj tej hom lattice qauv. Muaj kev sib txuas rau atomic, molecular los yog nws yog xim hlau lead ua ntxaij ntoo. Nyob ntawm seb lub hom thiab cov khoom ntawm qhov sib txawv crystalline tshuaj. Raug khoom tebchaw muaj ib tug saib fine- los yog ntxhib crystallites ntau ntau yam ntsev.

Tseem muaj tej yam yooj yim tshuaj nrog ib tug zoo xws li cov qauv, xws li graphite los yog pob zeb diamond, precious thiab semi-precious pob zeb, minerals, pob zeb. Cov yooj yim zog ntawm lawv:

• hardness;
• fragility;
• nruab nrab melting thiab kub kub.

Txawm li cas los, raws li ib txwm, txhua feature tej zaum yuav tsis haum rau txhua leej txhua tus.

Hlau zog tshuaj muaj hlau, lawv alloys. Rau lawv, ib tug txheej ntawm lub tuam yam ntxwv:

• malleability thiab ductility;
• siab kub point, melting point;
• hluav taws xob thiab thermal conductivity;
• nws yog xim hlau ci.